Racial/Ethnic Residential Segregation
Racial/ethnic residential segregation is the systematic separation of individuals by race/ethnicity. The processes that contribute to segregation patterns in the U.S. are the result of a complex set of social, cultural, and economic factors that also lead to the differential distribution of and exposure to resources and opportunities by race/ethnicity. Our group has utilized several nationally representative cross-sectional datasets and longstanding cohort studies to examine the contributions of residential segregation to cardiovascular disease risk factors and outcomes.
Local Getis-Ord Gi*Statistic
Measures of segregation at the metropolitan level have been evaluated extensively in the literature, but there is little guidance as to how best to measure it at the neighborhood level. Most studies of neighborhood-level racial/ethnic residential segregation use racial/ethnic composition, or the proportion of a racial/ethnic group in a neighborhood, as a proxy for segregation. However, this method is limited in its ability to account for how racial/ethnic groups are distributed in space, their potential for interaction with other racial/ethnic groups, and the larger area in which the neighborhood is situated. In contrast, formal neighborhood-level segregation measures such as the Gi*Statistic better reflect contextual and/or spatial aspects of segregation, as this is accounted for in the measure. Thus, our team has created and utilized Gi*Statistics at the census tract level for various racial groups across the United States. Administrative boundaries like census tracts are often used as proxies for neighborhoods due to their smaller boundaries in comparison to large metropolitan areas. They also have practical value in that it is the level at which racial/ethnic and socioeconomic data are reported by the U.S. Census and the American Community Survey. The Gi* statistic returns a Z score for each neighborhood (census tract), indicating the extent to which the racial/ethnic composition in the focal tract and neighboring tracts deviates from the mean racial composition of some larger areal unit. Higher positive Gi* Z scores indicate higher racial/ethnic segregation or clustering (overrepresentation), scores near 0 indicate racial integration, and lower negative scores suggest lower racial/ethnic representation (underrepresentation), in comparison with the racial composition of the larger areal unit. For more detailed information on the Gi* statistic and the specific measures we have created, see our published project on openICPSR.
Novel Measures of the Neighborhood Social Environment
Physical and social characteristics of neighborhoods are increasingly recognized as important determinants of CVD risk factors and outcomes. Several publications by our group and others have utilized U.S. Census indicators to show neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) and racial/ethnic residential segregation are associated with higher CVD risk. However, studies on more specific features of the social environment are limited. This is especially problematic at a time when public health practitioners are being called on to identify salient targets for more collaborative, cross-sector (i.e., “Health in All Policies”) approaches to addressing social determinants of health. To address this gap in the field, our group is using more novel, widely available data sources to investigate the contributions of under-studied aspects of the social environment to CVD risk.
Google Street View
One data source we have used is Google’s “Street View” feature, which makes it possible to assess these features virtually by viewing high resolution images of neighborhoods of interest and taking a virtual “walk” through the neighborhood. We are also using a combination of business location databases, property-level housing data, and police-recorded data.
Relevant Publications
1: Whitaker KM, Xiao Q, Pettee Gabriel K, Gordon Larsen P, Jacobs DR Jr, Sidney S, Reis JP, Barone Gibbs B, Sternfeld B, Kershaw K. Perceived and objective characteristics of the neighborhood environment are associated with accelerometer-measured sedentary time and physical activity, the CARDIA Study. Prev Med. 2019 Jun;123:242-249. 2: Mayne SL, Hicken MT, Merkin SS, Seeman TE, Kershaw KN, Do DP, Hajat A, Diez Roux AV. Neighbourhood racial/ethnic residential segregation and cardiometabolic risk: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. J Epidemiol Community Health. 2019 Jan;73(1):26-33. 3: Mayne SL, Yellayi D, Pool LR, Grobman WA, Kershaw KN. Racial Residential segregation and hypertensive disorder of pregnancy among women in Chicago: Analysis of electronic health record data. Am J Hypertens. 2018 Oct 15;31(11):1221-1227. 4: Salow AD, Pool LR, Grobman WA, Kershaw KN. Associations of neighborhood-level racial residential segregation with adverse pregnancy outcomes. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2018 Mar;218(3):351.e1-351.e7. 5: Pool LR, Carnethon MR, Goff DC Jr, Gordon-Larsen P, Robinson WR, Kershaw KN. Longitudinal associations of neighborhood-level racial residential segregation with obesity among blacks. Epidemiology. 2018 Mar;29(2):207-214. 6: Kershaw KN, Robinson WR, Gordon-Larsen P, Hicken MT, Goff DC Jr, Carnethon MR, Kiefe CI, Sidney S, Diez Roux AV. Association of changes in neighborhood-level racial residential segregation with changes in blood pressure among black adults: The CARDIA Study. JAMA Intern Med. 2017 Jul 1;177(7):996-1002. 7: Kershaw KN, Pender AE. Racial/ethnic residential segregation, obesity, and diabetes mellitus. Curr Diab Rep. 2016 Nov;16(11):108. Review. 8: Hicken MT, Adar SD, Hajat A, Kershaw KN, Do DP, Barr RG, Kaufman JD, Diez Roux AV. Air pollution, cardiovascular outcomes, and social disadvantage: The Multi-ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Epidemiology. 2016 Jan;27(1):42-50. 9: Kershaw KN, Albrecht SS. Racial/ethnic residential segregation and cardiovascular disease risk. Curr Cardiovasc Risk Rep. 2015 Mar;9(3). pii: 10. Review. 10: Kershaw KN, Osypuk TL, Do DP, De Chavez PJ, Diez Roux AV. Neighborhood-level racial/ethnic residential segregation and incident cardiovascular disease: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis. Circulation. 2015 Jan 13;131(2):141-8. 11: Jones MR, Diez-Roux AV, Hajat A, Kershaw KN, O'Neill MS, Guallar E, Post WS, Kaufman JD, Navas-Acien A. Race/ethnicity, residential segregation, and exposure to ambient air pollution: the Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA). Am J Public Health. 2014 Nov;104(11):2130-7. 12: Kershaw KN, Albrecht SS. Metropolitan-level ethnic residential segregation, racial identity, and body mass index among U.S. Hispanic adults: a multilevel cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2014 Mar 27;14:283. 13: Kershaw KN, Albrecht SS, Carnethon MR. Racial and ethnic residential segregation, the neighborhood socioeconomic environment, and obesity among Blacks and Mexican Americans. Am J Epidemiol. 2013 Feb 15;177(4):299-309. 14: Kershaw KN, Diez Roux AV, Burgard SA, Lisabeth LD, Mujahid MS, Schulz AJ. Metropolitan-level racial residential segregation and black-white disparities in hypertension. Am J Epidemiol. 2011 Sep 1;174(5):537-45.
15: Mayne SL, Pellissier BF, Kershaw KN. Neighborhood physical disorder and adverse pregnancy outcomes among women
in Chicago: A cross-sectional analysis of electronic health record data. J Urban Health. 2019 Nov 14. doi: 10.1007/s11524-019-00401-0. [Epub ahead of print] 16: Mayne SL, Jose A, Mo A, Vo L, Rachapalli S, Ali H, Davis J, Kershaw KN. Neighborhood disorder and obesity-related
outcomes among women in Chicago. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2018 Jul 3;15(7). 17: Mayne SL, Moore KA, Powell-Wiley TM, Evenson KR, Block R, Kershaw KN. Longitudinal associations of
neighborhood crime and perceived safety With blood pressure: The Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis (MESA).
Am J Hypertens. 2018 Aug 3;31(9):1024-1032. 18: Mayne SL, Pool LR, Grobman WA, Kershaw KN. Associations of neighbourhood crime with adverse pregnancy
outcomes among women in Chicago: analysis of electronic health records from 2009 to 2013. J Epidemiol
Community Health. 2018 Mar;72(3):230-236.