In the third chapter, Axel examines the profound interplay between the torture of Sikhs by Indian police and the dissemination of these harrowing images on the internet. From the 1980s onward, violence emerged as a common thread shaping and reshaping the relations constituting the Sikh diaspora. Keith traces the history of torture, particularly its peak between 1992-1993, and its widespread depiction on the internet from the late 1990s. The Disturbed Areas Act and counterinsurgency procedures in India are shown to facilitate systematic torture, primarily targeting the “Amritdhari” Sikh male body associated with Sikh separatism and militancy. Axel analyzes the specialized nature of torture tactics which focuses on the specific targeting of genitalia and sexual capacity. Axel further explores how the circulation of these images online forms a transnational spectacle, uniting the Sikh diaspora worldwide. The “tortured body” is linked to the iconic figure of the total Amritdhari body, creating an “argument of images.” Importantly, violence is described as the thread binding together the Sikh diaspora community, even for those not directly affected by the torture.

Moving to the fourth chapter, Axel shifts his focus to the history of Sikh immigrants in Southall, West London, a pivotal center for Punjabi Sikh settlement post-World War II. The industrial landscape and railway opportunities attracted Sikh men from Punjab in the late 1940s. Facing racism and discrimination, these immigrants organized through groups like the Indian Workers Association (IWA). Violent clashes in pubs, particularly in the 1970s-80s, reflected the struggle for equal rights, as British-born Sikhs fought for recognition and acceptance. Following the events of 1984, the Khalistan movement reshaped Sikh identities in Britain, with Southall becoming a significant Khalistani center. This chapter delves into the evolution of Sikh identity, transitioning from being perceived as a threat during workers’ rights demands to acceptance as consumers in the era of 1990s multiculturalism. The complex histories discussed illuminate the intricate shaping of Sikh citizenship in Britain.

In the fifth chapter, Axel focuses on the conflicts between Sikh studies scholars and Khalistanis over the conception of the Sikh homeland. Scholars view Punjab as the homeland, studying its transformation due to global capitalism and emphasizing its role as a psychological “home base” for diaspora Sikhs. In contrast, Khalistanis envision Khalistan as a distinct sovereign state, considering Indian control of Punjab as an occupation. These divergent notions of homeland correspond to different temporalities, with Khalistanis invoking an original Sikh homeland from the past. The conflicts manifest in Sikh studies programs funded by the diaspora, which critique the notion of a fixed Sikh identity, much to the dismay of Khalistanis. Sikh studies aim to prove Sikh humanity and gain rights, while Khalistanis emphasize state violence, seeing Sikh studies as disavowing present oppression by focusing on past Sikh identity. The chapter concludes by asserting that these conflicts over the homeland and its relation to the Sikh body are pivotal in shaping diaspora identity politics.

After reading this book, I am still thinking about how violence, visual representation, and alternate forms of knowledge production can inspire ethnonationalism and the formation of a “homeland” for different people. I am also linking this back to the first few weeks where we discussed Benedict Anderson’s argument about “imagined communities”.  Perhaps all communities are socially constructed and imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of that group. In the case of the Sikh community, their pre-colonial history and relationship with the British during the world wars, the systemic state violence by the Indian nation-state following independence, and the resulting dissemination of images of torture amongst the diaspora have impacted their sense of identity and “ethnonationalism” more than their religion as a uniting force.