Category Archives: Uncategorized

A’Naiya Johnson

A Brief Overview of “Africa” in Black Religion

Map image from Mappr ç

Black people in the Americas arrived here through the Atlantic Slave Trade, a process in which African people, largely from West Africa, were captured, transported across the Atlantic Sea, and forced into slavery. The Atlantic Slave Trade resulted in the creation of an African or Black Diaspora; today, Black people can be found in all across the globe, from the United States to the Caribbean to Europe. Despite being spread out across hundreds of thousands of miles, there remains significant cultural and social links between Black people across the diaspora, and this is what makes the Black Diaspora a topic worth studying for scholars and historians. In his essay “Perspectives for the Study of African American Religions in the United States,” Charles Long outlines the main historical function and purpose of Africa in the lives, and more specifically, in the religious and nationalist movements of Black people as a historical reality and religious image.

While the Atlantic Slave Trade and the institution of the slavery in the United States wiped slaves of their cultural and linguistic connections to Africa and African religious forms, the long-lasting influence of Africa on the religious practices of slaves in America is evident. For example, many slaves would hold secret meetings in the woods, away from the peering eyes of their master and overseer; Long states that these meetings were related to conjuring, using the language of the slaves themselves, which is reminiscent of Haitian Voodoo practices. This demonstrates Long’s idea of Africa as a historical reality for those who survived the Atlantic Slave Trade; the religious practices of Black slaves reflects this concept. Given the unique position of the slave, his religiousness can be thought of as a kind of melding of African religious practices/styles and Christianity. This is still seen in modern America, where the significance of Africa as a religious image and historical reality shines through in Black religious and nationalistic movements; one example of this is seen in Rastafarianism.

Rastafarianism is a Black monotheistic religion which developed in Jamaica during the 1930s; its followers are known as Rastafarians, or Rastas. Rastas regard Ethiopia as the homeland of all Black people, to which we must return, and many venerate Haile Selassie, a former Ethiopian emperor, as Jah incarnate or a prophet. Jah refers to God and is believed to live within each individual. Here is an example of Africa as the guiding image for a specific Black religious movement; this also points towards the religious meaning of land, especially for a “landless people” like ourselves. This landlessness is a direct result of the taking of African people and their subsequent enslavement in the Americas, while denying them connection or claim to their new home. Historian Eddie Glaude states that Africa is “a place that simultaneously marks a condition of living prior to the fateful encounter with white Europeans and one tragically disrupted by them as well.” Scholar Judith Weisenfeld offers that the significance of Africa as a place of origin or promised land to which we must return amongst “diaspora Blacks” highlights the profound spiritual connection between the two.

Yasmeen Mohammed Rafee

Religious Heteronormativity Counter to Queerness and Its Effect on Black Men

Although religion holds tremendous historical importance for the Black diaspora in America, non-heterosexual individuals often do not enjoy equal benefits. Homonegativity, defined as contempt for individuals expressing same-sex attractions, is often openly condemned within some Black religious institutions, with some Black ministers expressing disdain and disapproval of queerness (Jeffries, 2008). While a few churches are openly affirming of non-heterosexual parishioners, other churches have a particularly pronounced intolerance of them and their sexuality.

Because individuals raised within intolerant religious traditions sometimes internalise the homonegative views taught by them, they often suffer feelings of worthlessness and depression (Jeffries, 2008). One notable popular pop culture reference to this experience occurs in the film Moonlight, which weaves the tale of the life of Chiron, a young African-American man growing up in Miami who struggles to come to terms with his sexuality, family, and broad-spanning identity. The film has been widely lauded as one of the best films of the century and serves a stark contrast to the common canon of films that often appeal to predominantly straight, White, and middle-class audiences. In between the moments of drug-infused or adrenaline-rushed violence, juxtaposed against quiet, introspective reflections of self-discovery, Chiron eventually comes to terms with his homosexuality, makes amends in his flagging relationship with his mother, and discovers his sense of inner peace.

The film’s co-writer, Tarell Alvin McCraney, speaks about Black masculinity in the film and posited that communities, such as queer communities, without privilege or power seek to gain it in other ways. From his observation, the way in which males in such communities do this is by trying to enhance their masculine identity, knowing that it often provides a means to more social control in a patriarchal society (q on cbc, 2016, 13:37-14:21).

In Moonlight, masculinity is rigid and aggressive, depicted by the young Black males in Chiron’s adolescent peer group. Expressions of hypermasculinity among Black men is associated with peer acceptance and community; conversely, homosexuality among Black men is associated with social alienation and homophobic judgement by peers. In the film, Chiron is placed in this divide as a Black, gay man and alters his presentation of masculinity as a result. As he grows older, he conforms to a heteronormative ideal of Black masculinity in order to avoid abuse and homophobia and hence embraces an uncomfortable, stereotypical Black male gender performance by becoming an overtly muscular drug-dealer. The end of the film is not necessarily uplifting; Chiron does find peace being with Kevin in the last several moments of the film, but the attitude towards Chiron’s eventual self-acceptance is pensive, not outright positive. Chiron’s social acceptance and hypermasculine portrayal of himself in the common heteronormative canon of his community will not change due to his conversation with Kevin, and he may never completely find a sense of identity achievement. As further clarification for this analysis: while Moonlight does not necessarily portray a religious community, the community that Chiron encounters and exists within holds many similar familiar tendencies of interconnectedness that is often seen in religious communities.

Within Black religious communities, because many queer Black men have encountered alienation within church communities, they frequently esteem personal faith in God, or spirituality, higher than the Bible or their religious institutions and may also reinterpret church teachings in alignment with their own sexualities. Though many queer Black men often struggle with feelings of disapproval from God and churches, spirituality may maintain their formal connections to religious establishments (Jeffries, 2008).

However, optimistically, not all Black religious traditions carry similar binary understandings of accepting vs. not accepting. Within the community of Voudou, there are many gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender practitioners who are often referred to with terms such as madivin and masisi. A 1998 observation by Mambo Racine Sans Bout observed that non-heterosexual individuals were not excluded from religious community and there were notable queer individuals within initiates and clergymen (Conner, 2005, p. 153). Within the spiritual tradition of Voudou, queer Black individuals, including queer Black men, find broad acceptance and identity acceptance.

References

Conner, R.P. (2005). Rainbow’s children: Diversity of gender and sexuality in African-diasporic spiritual traditions. In P. Bellegarde-Smith (Ed.), Fragments of bone: Neo-African religions in a new world. University of Illinois Press. Accessed via Northwestern University Canvas.

Jeffries, W. L., Dodge, B., & Sandfort, T. G. (2008). Religion and spirituality among bisexual Black men in the USA. Culture, health & sexuality, 10(5), 463–477. https://doi.org/10.1080/13691050701877526

q on cbc (October 28, 2016). Moonlight director Barry Jenkins on changing the perception of manhood. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=R7_GimSKeiw

SABC News (January 23, 2017). Public outraged by pastor’s anti-gay sermon. https://youtu.be/MWA9mjXKsEw

Dwayne Morgan

Combating Black Elitism: How Black People Experience Freedom

Freedom of Expression

Realizing the Flexibility of Freedom

As one moves throughout communities within the African American diaspora, it becomes salient that freedom, what should be a birth-given right, has been reclaimed and protected through various spiritual beliefs. Every individual’s personal measure of freedom, regardless of how small, deserves to be recognized.

Operating from a religious perspective, Christianity has dominated black freedom movements and even  dominates connotations of black religion itself. This is predominantly due to the lasting influence of a society built on the foundation of slavery, where conversion to Christianity secured a greater chance at life. Transitioning to the abolishment of slavery, the only  dominant institution that remained was the church.

Contrary to Western norms , freedom provided through religion can not be confined and attaining freedom from a religion outside these norms should not reduce a person’s position within the social hierarchy. In an attempt to highlight non-dominant black religious practices, a short introduction to the ways  black people in other religions find freedom will follow.

Black participation in Buddhism, though not as common as Christianity, still exists within the black community and has had a powerful impact for those who practice it.  Jan Willis,  author of Dreaming Me, provides a deep level on insight into her life experiences of being “Black,Baptist, and Buddhist”. For Willis, studying in Nepal and learning Buddhism came at the expense of staying within America and become a Black Panther. For her, this was the right choice. Living with Tibetan Buddhists gave her a feeling of true belonging that is not commonly found for African Americans living in the United States. Buddhist teachings empowered Willis and allowed her to realized innate characteristics about her own character. What is complex about Willis’ religious beliefs is that she identifies as a “Baptist-Buddhist”, though many black Baptists may disapprove, and she pulls teachings from both religions to achieve her own spiritual freedom.

Orisa is the collective term  for the globalization of Yoruba religious culture containing the religious traditions Voodoo, Santeria, and Candomble. As an African descendant religious category, many services and traditions, opposing Western religious norms, involve an individual’s relationship with spirits. Dating back to the Haitian revolution, Orisa religions, particular Voodoo, have become closely associated with rebellion. Through the empowerment of their spirituality, Haitians managed to reclaim their physical freedom and end their enslavement. Their rebellion meant, freedom to exist as an independent nation, freedom to practice their spirituality, and freedom to be fully human.

Caleb Whittaker

Song: In The Context of Sacred vs. Secular

INDIO, CALIFORNIA – APRIL 21: Kanye West performs Sunday Service during the 2019 Coachella Valley Music And Arts Festival on April 21, 2019 in Indio, California. (Photo by Rich Fury/Getty Images for Coachella)

 

The discussion of what Black musical genres might be considered “religious” despite not actually being connected to a religion was one of my favorites throughout the class. I think it is important to recognize that many different genres can be seen as “religious” such as blues, hip-hop, R&B, etc. It is also important to note that even within Black religious culture the line between sacred and secular is blurred at times.

Interestingly enough, both sides of the binary seem to affect one another. As discussed in the Angela Davis reading entitled Blues Legacies and Black Feminism, Davis discusses how Blues as a musical genre was key to Black history and Black experience because it challenged dominant ideologies and established forms of gender equality post-slavery.  The ripples of this would not only be felt within the music industry, but also throughout the Church as it challenge ideas of feminine sexuality and homophobia. This reading is also important because of the “Blues spirit” discussed. It positions Blues as not just as a musical genre, but as a spiritual practice that deeply impacted the Black community.

When considering how song and the sacred vs. secular binary function together, I think are so many modern day songs or performances that help illuminate what non-religion based “religious” music is.

I first think of Kanye West’s Sunday Service performances. The songs may be secular in nature, yet Kanye and the accompanying choir perform them in a manner similar to Black Baptist churches. I think it brings a new light to the songs and highlights certain elements of his lyrics that change the experience into a more religious one.

Next, I think of Hozier’s song “Take Me To Church”, a song that is powerful all on its own. The song alone is about sex, sexuality, humanity, but the song has a spiritual nature to it that is more easily felt than described. The song coupled with the music video, that was meant to critique Russian anti-LGBTQ+ laws, evokes a heightened spirituality while bringing themes of love, equality, and more into play. Hozier creates a perfect example of song that would be seen as secular, yet has an unmistakeable spiritual nature that could completely blurs the binary of sacredness and secularity.

Finally, Frank Ocean’s “Bad Religion” is a song that it is easier to feel the spiritual nature than describe it. Having said that, the song suggests that an unrequited love can be comparable to worshipping  someone, which refers to as a “bad religion”. The song is sorrowful and heart-breaking, yet conveys this idea of spirituality outside of religion. Frank even rejects prayer in this song because of this “bad religion” created by unrequited love.

Music is so powerful, and to believe that spirituality only stems from religion-based music fails to include the spiritual nature that many secular songs have. Whether it be within the Black community, or influenced by the Black community in some way, secular spirit can hold great spirituality that subverts archaic thinking and in its own way becomes sacred.